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53000 BC
In 2008 a human cranium dating to about this time was found in the Manot Cave in Israel. Anthropologists later said the cranium was a missing connection between African and European populations.
Links: Israel, Brain, Anthropology, HistoryBC     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1761 Apr 17
Thomas Bayes (b.1702), English theologian and mathematician, died. He established a mathematical basis for probability inference based on sparse data. Sampling from a large population (the frequentist school) came to dominate the field in the modern era. In 2006 researchers suggested that the human brain might work in a Bayesian manner drawing strong inferences from sparse data.
Links: Britain, Math, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1848 Sep 13
Dr. John Martyn Harlow treated Phinneas Gage in Vermont for a head injury from a tamping iron that had pierced the man’s skull during a blasting accident. Gage survived until 1860, but with definite personality changes that Dr. Harlow tracked.
Links: USA, Medical, Vermont, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1857
Paul Broca, a French neurologist, discovered that particular regions of the brain are specialized for particular functions. In 1861 he authored a classical paper that detailed damage in the brain’s left temporal lobe to loss of speech.
Links: France, Medical, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1934 Oct 18
Santiago Ramon y Cajal (b.1852), Spanish neuroscientist and Nobel Laureate (1906), died. “Every man can, if he so desires, become the sculptor of his own brain.” His original pioneering investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain have led his being designated by many, as the father of modern neuroscience.
Links: Spain, Nobel Prize, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1941 Jul 26
Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897), American linguist, died. He had argued that different languages condition or restrain the mind’s habits of thought.
Links: USA, Brain, Language     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1953 Sep 1
Henry Molaison (1926-2008) of Connecticut, suffering from severe epilepsy, underwent surgery in which most of his brain’s medial temporal lobes were removed. The procedure failed to cure him, but from that point on he was unable to form a new long-term memory. In 2016 Luke Dittrich authored “Patient H.M.: A Story of memory, Madness, and Family Secrets.”
Links: USA, Medical, Brain, Connecticut     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1953
Donald Ewen Cameron (1901-1967), professor of neurology and psychology at Albany State Medical School, developed what he called "psychic driving". He developed the theory that mental patients could be cured by treatment that erased existing memories and by rebuilding the psyche completely.
Links: USA, New York, Brain, Psychology     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1953
Project MKUltra, sometimes referred to as the CIA's mind control program, was officially sanctioned. The code name given to an illegal program of experiments on human subjects, designed and undertaken by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), had begun in the early 1950s. Project MKUltra was first brought to public attention in 1975 by the Church Committee of the US Congress, and a Gerald Ford commission to investigate CIA activities within the United States. Investigative efforts were hampered by the fact that CIA Director Richard Helms ordered all MKUltra files destroyed in 1973. South Boston gangster James Bulgar was among prison inmates who had time shaved off their sentences in exchange for LSD injections in MKUltra.
Links: USA, CIA, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1963 Oct 31
Pres. John F. Kennedy signed the Community Mental Health Act, which aimed to close asylums and treat mental disorders more like illnesses and less like crimes.
Links: USA, Brain, KennedyJ     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1967
Donald Ewen Cameron (b.1901), Scottish-born professor of neurology and psychology, died. After WWII Cameron worked at the Albany State Medical School. Cameron developed the theory that mental patients could be cured by treatment that erased existing memories and by rebuilding the psyche completely.
Links: USA, New York, Brain, Psychology     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1973
Neurologist Oliver Sacks (1933-2015) authored “Awakenings.” In 1990 it was turned into a film featuring Robin Williams.
Links: USA, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1975
Dr. Hans W. Kosterlitz (1903-1996) led a team in Aberdeen, Scotland, that discovered the small enkaphalin proteins, opiate-like substances. This led to the discovery of the endorphins, larger opiate-like proteins in the brain.
Links: Scotland, Medical, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1975
California enacted a strict fire-safety law requiring that furniture withstand 12 seconds of flame without catching fire. Manufacturers used large amounts of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) to comply. In 2012 researchers said PBDEs appear to delay the neurological development of children of children. In 2013 state officials moved change Technical Bulletin 117 easing the requirements on flame retardants.
Links: California, Medical, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1976
"The Selfish Gene" by Richard Dawkins was published. Here he launched the archetypal "meme," defined as a unit of cultural transmission. It described how ideas mimic the behavior of genes and propagate by leaping from brain to brain. In 2009 Fern Elsdon-Baker authored “The Selfish Genius: How Richard Dawkins Rewrote Darwin’s Legacy.”
Links: USA, DNA, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1976
Joseph Weizenbaum (1923-2008) wrote "Computer Power and Human Reason." He described here his program called ELIZA that demonstrated a conversation between a patient and a computer posing as a psychiatrist.
Links: USA, Computer, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1980
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), an anxiety disorder that can develop after a person is exposed to one or more traumatic events, was first defined and became a formal psychiatric diagnosis.
Links: USA, Medical, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1981 May 11
Bob Marley (b.1945), Jamaican reggae artist, died of brain cancer in Miami.
Links: USA, Florida, Jamaica, Pop&Rock, Brain, Cancer     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1981 Jun 5
The US Federal Centers for Disease Control published the first report of a mysterious outbreak of a sometimes fatal pneumonia among gay men. Dr. Michael Gottlieb of UCLA and Dr. Joel Weisman (1943-2009) reported 5 cases of a rare pneumonia among gay men in LA. The disease was initially called gay related immune deficiency (GRID). The syndrome was named Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in 1982. Within 10 years the disease killed 110,000 Americans. People infected with HIV came to be defined as having AIDS when their immune system became so weak that they got one of 26 specific illnesses including non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, pneumonia, brain infections and some other cancers.
Links: USA, California, Gays, Medical, AIDS, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1983
Harvard Prof. Howard Gardner authored “Frames of Mind” in which he proposed the "multiple intelligence theory," which held that there are multiple types of intelligence, such as athletic prowess and musical ability, beyond the traditional math and verbal skills.
Links: USA, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1984
William Gibson wrote his science fiction work "Neuromancer." Gibson is credited with coining the term cyberspace. He envisioned chips plugged directly into the brain to transfer information.
Links: USA, Writer, Internet, BioTech, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1985 Apr 15
Jenia Hamley, a medical assistant, was stuck in the left index finger while recapping a Becton Dickinson needle. Hamley was pregnant and 5 months later she tested positive for hepatitis B. She sued BD and claimed that the infection caused brain damage to her newborn son. BD settled the case confidentially and denied liability.
Links: USA, Microbiology, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1985
Ronald Hoeflin founded the Mega Society, an organization whose members purport to have an IQ of at least 176. The organization was in violation of a California code, section 2903 of the state Business and Professions Code, that requires a psychology license to construct, administer and interpret tests of mental abilities.
Links: USA, California, Brain, Psychology     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1987 Feb 2
The White House announced the resignation of CIA director William Casey, who was hospitalized and had undergone brain surgery.
Links: USA, CIA, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1987 Dec 29
The antidepressant drug Prozac was allowed to go on the market. It was based on fluoxetine, which increases serotonin levels in the brain by preventing the cells that that produce serotonin from reabsorbing it too quickly. It was discovered by Dr. Ray W. Fuller (1936-1996), Dr. David Wong and Dr. Bryan Molloy of Eli Lilly.
Links: USA, Pharma, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1987
Larry R. Squire authored “Memory and Brain.” It became a classic in the biology of memory.
Links: USA, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1987
An English edition of “The Mind of a Mnemonist” by Russian psychologist Alexander Luria (1902-1977) was published.
Links: Russia, USSR, Brain, Psychiatry     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1989 Sep 8
Former President Reagan underwent surgery at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota to relieve fluid build-up on his brain after a horse-riding accident.
Links: USA, Minnesota, Brain, ReaganR     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1989
Ralph Merkle, computer scientist at Xerox PARC, evaluated intellectual processing power 3 different ways. An average of his methods indicated that the brain runs about 1 quadrillion operations per second. With computing power doubling every 18 months, he reasoned that hardware would catch up with brainpower around 2020.
Links: USA, Computer, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1989
Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang introduced the expression “swarm intelligence” (SI) in the context of cellular robotic systems. Marco Dorigo (b.1961) helped found the field. It describes the collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on artificial intelligence.
Links: USA, Brain, Sociology, AI     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1990
1999
Pres. George Bush declared the 90s as "The Decade of the Brain."
Links: USA, Brain, BushHW     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1990
The KE family were brought to the attention of the scientific community about this time. Over three generations of this family, about half the family members suffer from a number of problems, the most obvious of which is severe difficulty in speaking. A mutation of the FOXP2 brain gene was later related to language loss.
Links: Medical, Biology, Brain, Language     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1991
Richard Tarnas authored “The Passion of the Western Mind,” a survey of the Western world view.
Links: USA, Philosophy, Brain, Books, Sociology     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1992
After hearing about his cutting-edge research on the brain and emotions through mutual friends, the Dalai Lama invited Richard Davidson, a University of Wisconsin-Madison neuroscientist, to his home in India to pose a question: Scientists often study depression, anxiety and fear, but why not devote your work to the causes of positive human qualities like happiness and compassion? In 2010 the Dalai Lama marked the opening of the Center for Investigating Healthy Minds at the university's Waisman Center.
Links: India, Tibet, Wisconsin, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1993
A family in the Netherlands was found to have an abnormally high number of violent criminals. The criminal members were found to have a faulty gene that caused the absence of the enzyme monoamine oxidase A, an enzyme that regulates a group of neurotransmitters including serotonin and dopamine. Both of these were important for emotional responses.
Links: Netherlands, Medical, Brain, Psychology     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1993
Benjamin Libet (1916-2007), UCSF neurophysiologist and pioneer in studies of free will, edited “Neurophysiology of Consciousness.”
Links: USA, Philosophy, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1994
Marvin Minsky wrote in a Scientific American article that: "In the end we will find ways to replace every part of the body and brain and thus repair all the defects and injuries that make our lives so brief."
Links: USA, Medical, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1995 Jan
Roger Penrose wrote "Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness." The book is an attempt to show that the human mind is not like a computer program, and that no computer program could substitute for the mind.
Links: Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1995
Richard Powers published his novel "Galatea 2.2," about artificial intelligence.
Links: Brain, Books, AI     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1995
Jeffrey Friedman of Rockefeller Univ. and others announced the discovery of leptin, a protein produced by fat cells, that signal the brain to reduce dietary intake.
Links: Food, Biology, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1995
James Kennedy (b.1950), American social psychologist, and Russell C. Eberhart presented the first papers on particle swarm optimization (PSO). Since then more than a thousand papers have been published on particle swarms.
Links: USA, Brain, Sociology     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1996 Jan 29
The FDA was about to approve Redux, a drug to help reduce obesity. It was to be marketed by American Home Products. It is chemically known as dexfenfluramine, a close cousin of Prozax. This class of drugs raise the levels of serotonin in the brain, which provides a feeling of fullness and satisfaction.
Links: Pharma, Brain, FDA     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1996 Mar 20
The British government said that a rare brain disease that had killed 10 people was probably linked to so-called "mad cow disease."
Links: Britain, Mad Cow, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1996 May 7
In San Diego, Ca., Alzheimer’s researcher, Tsunao Saitoh and his daughter, 13-year-old Loullie, were shot and killed. In 1993 he identified a protein that is deposited in plaques that form in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. In 1995 he learned that the protein was controlled by chromosome 4 and was searching for its exact location when he was killed.
Links: California, Medical, Murder, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1996 Jun
Ken Wise of the Univ. of Michigan was awarded the Discover Magazine’s Award for Technological Innovation with his development of neural probes so tiny that they could stimulate or record signals from single nerve cells in the brain.
Links: Michigan, Brain, Magazine     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1996
Dr. Robert G. Heath (d.1999) published "Exploring the Mind-Brain Relationship."
Links: Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1996
Joseph LeDoux, professor of neuroscience ay NYU, authored “The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life.”
Links: USA, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1997 Mar 5
Brain researchers announced that some instinctual behavior was successfully transferred between chicken and quail embryos. The young birds did not live past 14 days.
Links: Animal, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1997 Apr 24
In Japan the lower house of parliament voted to make heart transplants possible by recognizing the concept of brain death.
Links: Japan, Medical, Brain, Heart     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1997 Jun 17
In Japan lawmakers rewrote the definition of death to allow life-saving transplants of body parts. Brain death rather than heart death would be the new criteria and would take effect in 3 months.
Links: Japan, Brain, Heart     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1997 Jun 27
It was reported that researchers have discovered the first defective gene that causes Parkinson’s disease. The mutated gene produces a defective version of the brain protein alpha synuclein.
Links: Medical, BioTech, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1997 Aug 27
It was announced that the diet drugs, Redux and Pondimin, caused brain damage in animals at doses similar to those taken by humans.
Links: Medical, Pharma, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1997 Sep 8
John Liebeskind (62) died in LA. He was a leading researcher in the study of pain and found that the brain controls pain by creating a chemical now known as an endorphin.
Links: Medical, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1997
Deborah Blum published "Sex on the Brain: The Biological Differences Between Men and Women."
Links: Sex, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1998 Feb 19
Scientists reported the discovery of the brain’s hunger hormone. It was named "orexin" after the Greek word "orexis" meaning hunger.
Links: Food, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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1998 Jun 23
Laboratory grown adult nerve cells were implanted into a human brain for the first time to treat a stroke at the Univ. of Pittsburgh Medical Center.
Links: Pennsylvania, BioTech, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1998
John L. Casti published "The Cambridge Quintet: A Work of Scientific Speculation." The author imagines a 1949 dinner party with Ludwig Wittgenstein, J.B.S. Haldane, Erwin Schrodinger, Alan Turing and C.P. Snow. A lively discussion revolves around artificial intelligence and the question: Can a machine think?
Links: Math, Philosophy, Brain, Books, AI     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1998
Sue Savage-Rumbaugh wrote "Apes, Language, and the Human Mind." It was based on her work with Kanzi, a bonobo ape, that began in 1980 at the Georgia State Univ. Language Research Center.
Links: Brain, Books, Primates, Language     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1998
Michael Tournier’s book, "The Mirror of Ideas," was translated into English from the French. The 58 essays revived the ancient notion that a limited number of concepts and categories govern all our thoughts, and that their staying power is owed to our custom of pairing them off.
Links: France, Philosophy, Brain, Books     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
 
1998
A brain implant let a paralyzed stroke victim move a cursor on a computer screen to point out simple phrases. [see Apr 13, 2004]
Links: Computer, BioTech, Brain     Click to see the source(s) for this event 
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